Ancient Religions II: An Analysis of the Practice of Fire Worship in Ancient Religions
Fire - the dazzling, fiery and bright expression of elemental energy of the cosmos. With the advances in modern science, we now know how fire works, that is, harnesses its energy. That has to do with the breaking of molecular bonds in the materials, where the mass of the products is slightly less than the combined mass of the reactants, the remnant mass transforming into heat and light. However, this wasn't known to the ancients, but that didn't stop them from reflecting on the nature of fire, and more importantly, its practical purposes.
It is right said, that the twin discoveries of fire and wheel are the most important of the advances in the ancient times. Fire and wheel, they made us man, in the truest sense of the term. Instead of relying on the chaotic probability of nature, our ancestors could then use the power resulting out of the practical side of their newfound wisdom to gradually build, craft and make what they required. Therefore, it is only natural that our ancestors would naturally find themselves grateful to fire, and in process gradually deify the same.
The result of this collective mindset of our ancients was the formation of a vast multitude of Fire Deities, such as Agni (Vedic/Hindu), Hestia (Greek), Vesta (Roman), Svarog (Slavic) and Logi (Norse). Obviously, I use the term formation here to denote perception, without going into the still unresolved debate regarding the objective existence of these deities. What I do here, therefore, is to focus solely on the subjective side of the deities, dodging the question of their existence (independent of the human consciousness) altogether.
Sources of Information
Similar to my previous post (which started the series), I'm relying greatly here on the Rigveda and Zend Avesta. The fantastic book Religion of the Veda by the late Prof. Maurice Bloomfield has been of great aid to understand the early verses of the Veda, additionally it helped me paint a mental picture of the Vedic god Agni, a picture that remained incomplete after I studied Hindu Gods and Heroes by Lionel Burnett.
In addition to the above texts, I've also taken the help of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's lectures and articles on the Vedic deities, most of which were written in my native language Bengali. While Chatterjee was not exactly an Indologist, being one of the greatest novelists and authors of the Indian Renaissance and all, there are few in the world who can even be comparable to him in the matter.
I've also taken excerpts from Brahmabandhab Upadhaya's celebrated articles on the Vedic religion, first published in the Naba Bangadarshan journal edited by the great Rabindranath Tagore.
Chatterjee and Upadhaya's perspectives are reformed takes on the traditional Indian view on the Vedic religion, although the former's sharper degree of research and analytical mindset definitely makes it harder to call the view entirely Indian. Wherever possible, Chatterjee has utilized the brilliance of the western analytical methods, in addition to the pure and elegant conceptions of the Indian mind. And in addition, to balances the scales, I've included the perspectives of the European and American Indologists of the time.
And as I did earlier, I took the help of the knowledge I derived by reading the excellent books on Norse and Greeco-Roman mythologies (and their analyses) by H.A Gueber and E.M Berens. They helped me brush up my perspective (as a neutral foreigner) on the respective mythologies of the Norsemen, Greeks and the Romans.
Agni, the unchanged, eternal god of fire
If you take a copy of the Rigveda, you'll see that the very first slokah of the very first hymn, is dedicated to Agni. As it goes, the Rigvedic starts its vast canon with the utterance:
अग्निमीळे पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवं रत्वीजम | होतारं रत्नधातमम
The very first word in the Rigveda is Agni. It signifies the tremendous importance of the god of fire in the Vedas. Griffith's translation for the verse is "I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, The hotar, lavishest of wealth". The word Purohitam here, according to most scholars, refers to the duty of the elemental fire (and the deity personifying the same) in Vedic sacrifices and rituals. Even in later Hinduism, we can see that fire has been called The mouth of the Paramatman (supreme soul), in the Vedantas. But let us turn our attention back to the pre-Vedantic form of the deity here.
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| Agni, the eternal, radiant Lord of fire |
In my humble opinion, that I derived from my first-hand understanding of Hinduism, this has been the case due to two reasons. The first reason is that, despite the importance of fire in almost every Hindu ritual even today, Agni is no longer one of the main gods in the pantheon. Instead, the gradual ascension of Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti has virtually eclipsed the supremacy of Agni. Even in the Vedas, we see that while Agni has been called The Minister of Sacrifice, Equal to each deity in strength and even The Guard of the Law Eternal (a reference to Rta, which I discussed in my previous post), Indra is still the one to receive maximum libations, worship, prayers and homage. In fact, more than a third of the total Soma offered to the gods went directly to Indra.
To better understand the nature of Agni, let us take the reference of the first hymn sung in his praise, the foremost stanza of the Rigveda.
1 I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice,
The hotar, lavishest of wealth.
2 Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers.
He shall bring hitherward the Gods.
3 Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yea, plenty waxing day by day,
Most rich in heroes, glorious.
4 Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou encompassest about
Verily goeth to the Gods.
5 May Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great,
The God, come hither with the Gods.
6 Whatever blessing, Agni, thou wilt grant unto thy worshipper,
That, Aṅgiras, is indeed thy truth.
7 To thee, dispeller of the night, O Agni, day by day with prayer
Bringing thee reverence, we come
8 Ruler of sacrifices, guard of Law eternal, radiant One,
Increasing in thine own abode.
9 Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son:
Agni, be with us for our weal.
Using the above as a reference, and in a point-wise manner, let me take the liberty of discussing some of the features or attributes that the Vedic Rishi has bestowed on Agni, the fire personified:
1. Agni seen as the priest: This is quite easy to understand. No Vedic fire-ritual or Yajna is complete without the fire itself. Naturally, Agni is regarded as the primal sacrificer, the priest of the Gods. Without hymn, no sacrifice is complete. And the moment he appears (i.e is kindled), the sacrifice starts. As a personal note, I'd also suggest the idea that, the Vedic people might have been influences by the natural wildfires that were common in that period. The smoke coming out of those burning trees went straight to the heavens, which made the process analogous and similar to the Yajna.
2. Agni, praised by living and ancient seers: This is quite evident by itself. Since time immemorial, the Vedic people (and their ancestors) had been performing fire sacrifices. Thus, Agni is invoked today as He had been invoked in the past.
3. Agni, bringer of the Gods: This is worthy of special notice. As the priest or Hotar, Agni is considered the bearer of Habya or the sacrifice (mainly clarified butter or Ghee). Thus, we see that the personification of fire is being seen as a sort of bridge between the heavens and the earth.
4. Carrier of the sacrifice: The ancient Vedic Aryans regarded the sky (Antariksha) as the dwelling place of the various gods. Obviously we have terrestrial deities as well, but when the sacrifice is being performed, the smoke emerging out of it is reaching the heavens, and gradually getting dissipitated in the atmosphere. This, as per the Vedic seers, meant that the Devas had accepted the sacrifice. Thus, Agni is regarded as the messenger of the heavens, the carrier who carries the sacrifice to the gods.
5. The dispeller of night: In the ancient times, the discovery of fire was an important step. Darkness, across all religions and in every culture, has been feared. With darkness, comes uncertainly. However, since fire-torches enabled the ancients to illuminate their abode at night, Agni is being hailed as the dispeller of night.
6. Ruler of sacrifices, guard of the law eternal: Once again, we see Agni being hailed as the ruler of sacrifices. As the primal sacrificer and priest of the gods, Agni presides over the Yajna. To please Him is to please all the gods, and thus that is of supreme importance. Agni being central to the act of Yajna itself, He is called so. Also, to the Vedic seer, the 'law eternal' or Rta is actually a result of the first Yajna, that the gods performed to give rise to the cosmos. In later Hinduism, we see that in the Purusha Sukta (Rigveda 10:90), this has been mentioned as the sacrifice of the Purusha by the Devas. That sacrifice gave rise to the heavens and earth alike. Even in Vedantic Hinduism, this concept prevails, although in a different fashion. In there, the Brahman is regarded as the sacrifice, the sacrificer as well as the result of the sacrifice (Yajnaphala). Naturally, the resulting cosmos would need laws for proper functioning. And that's why, the concept of Rta or cosmic order has been linked to Agni.
7. Agni increasing in his own abode: The Aryan mind conceived Agni as the resident of Alok-loka (the realm of light). This might be a reference to the Vedic concept of the high-sky (Urdhakasha), which is filled with the light of the sun. Since the Yajna is all about feeding Agni, it is said to enhance the might of Agni himself. This is, if I may phrase it thus, a sort of 'give and take' policy, which has also been enshrined in the third chapter of the Bhagwat Geeta. [Ref. 1]
Additional attributes associated with Agni
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| A Vedic sacrifice (Yajna) |
In the early portion of Samaveda, we see that the term Jaatamaryasya (born for the Aryans) has been used to describe Agni. The simplest explanation here (to make use of Occam's razor) should be regarded as the most valid expression. The Aryans, worshippers of Agni and performers of the true (Vedic) rites, call themselves the chosen people, for whom Agni was born. This is similar to the Jews regarding themselves as the chosen tribe of God.
In the Vedas, Agni has often been regarded as Kavikratu. The meaning of this term might be interpreted in three different ways. The first, as Bloomfield advocates, is to take the word Kavi (poet, composer of ritualistic hymns) in a literal sense. Since the superbly poetic Vedic hymns are actually composed for the purpose of primarily accompanying the Yajna and appeasing the gods, Agni, as the focal point of sacrifice, is poetically considered the inspirer of poetry. Kratu is associated with the meaning action, and the act of composing poetic hymns is being referred to here. However, in some interpretations of the term (a radically more interesting interpretation, I'd say), Kavikratu is the one whose action is to create, similar to how the poet creates (composes) his poetry. Thus, Agni might even be referred to as the creator of everything, in a philosophical sense.
And yet again, we can interpret Kavikratu as the one who is full of wisdom, regarding the act of sacrifice. Agni as the primal sacrificer and chief priest, as well as being the omniscient Jaataveda, may be called Kavikratu in this sense too, for He knows the Yajna. [Ref. 3]
Fire-worshipping in ancient Greece and Rome
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| Hestia, the Greek Goddess of hearthfire |
However, unlike Agni of the Indo-Aryans who represents all types of fire (including the warmth in our bodies), Hestia mainly represents the useful fires, which are full of utilities for mankind. Thus, all household sacrifices were offered to her. This helps us understand that the practice of sacrificing libations to the burning fire predates the birth and seperation of the various Indo-European religions.
Once main theme that we find associated with Hestia and Her Roman equivalent Vesta is that, they both are regarded as eternal, in the practical sense of the term. Practically speaking, it was difficult to re-kindle the hearth in those days, if the fire ever got extinguished. That's why, it was necessary to keep the fire burning. As Berens masterfully explains, this relates to the fact that Hestia and Vesta were to be always kept present in their elemental forms.
Other than household sacrifices, public sacrifices were also offered to the deities. The Prytaneum (village or city in ancient Greece) had its own public hearth, where the eternal fire was kept burning. This is more so in the case of Rome, where the temple of the Vestal Virgins was shouldered the responsibility of keeping the Flame of Vesta burning, and thus living. Even when the Romans had to evacuate the city during the Gaulish invasion, the Flame of Vesta was carried and preserved securely to other parts of Italy. As long as the Flame of Vesta remained, the spirit of Rome lived.
In fact, so important was the Flame of Vesta to the Romans, that the six Vestal Virgins were chosen to tend the fire. These virgins had to retail their virginity, and if they did otherwise, they were to be burried alive (to be judged by the Goddess herself). In Steven Saylor's beautiful, epic-length novel Empire, we see how Cornelia, the Virgo Maxima (chief of the Vestal Virgins), was burried in an underground chamber when she was found fornicating with Lucius Pinarius. If any virgin was found thus guilty, if meant that a great danger will loom over Rome. This helps us understand the supreme importance of the fire-goddess in Rome.
A very important point to note, regarding the worshipping of fire in Indo-European religions, is the story of Hestia's birth. As per the legend, Cronus swallowed Hestia immediately following her birth. Since she was the eldest daughter, she went down first. And when Zeus (following the battle of Titanomachy) forced Cronus to disgorge all his children, Hestia was naturally the last one to come out. This makes Hestia simultaneously the eldest, and youngest, of the Olympians. Now, in the Vedas, we see Agni being hailed as being both ancient and young. As Agni predates the birth of mankind, he is seen as being ancient. But since the fire is re-kindled each day (unlike the eternal fire of Hestia), Agni is also the youngest of the gods. This clearly helps us see that Agni and Hestia are the manifestations (or transmutations) of the same concept. Thus, this emboldens the hypothesis of the existence of a common proto-Indo-European religion.
But even prior to the evolution of the Roman religion (virtually an evolution of the Greek religion), fire was worshipped in Rome. The Numinas (nature-spirits), most importantly Fascinus (a winged phallus, symbolizing fertility and protection of women during childbirth), was associated with fire.
In addition, Hephaestus (Vulcan) is also associated with fire. As the god of craftsmanship, Hephaestus is said to command the industrial usage of fire. His Roman equivalent Vulcan can also be interpreted as the representation of the fire inside the earth, i.e the volcanic activities. It was believed that Vulcan had his workplace in the island of Sicily, where he manufactured weapons for the gods.
Fire-worship in Parsi (Zoroastrian) religion
In the Parsi religion, Atar is the concept of the fire of purity. The fire-temples of the Parsis serve as the abodes of Atar, where he is worshipped alongside Aban (clean water). However, unlike Agni who is a divinity, Atar is not generally personified. He is associated primarily with Asha Vashishtha, the divinity himself associated with light. And thus, Atar is at best regarded as the helper of the Amesha Spenta. [4]
It is of primal importance in Zoroastrianism, to keep Atar pure. Like Agni, Atar is said to dwell everywhere. So, defiling the fire is intolerable in the religion. It is important to even cover your nose while tending the Atar, so that your breath doesn't defile it.
As the source of light and heat, Atar is the creation of Ahura Mazda. It is to be noted that Agni is regarded as an Asura in the Vedas. Fire is associated with goodness, in the dualistic worldview of the Zoroastrians.
Conclusion
The models of proto-Indo-European religion that have been assembled, using the data available to us, indicate the supreme importance of fire in the ancient religions. In the Vedas, quite possibly the most important of the Indo-European texts (since it clearly shows how a deity is conceived by the human mind, through anthropomorphism), the fire is hailed as Agni or terrestrial fire on earth, lightning in the atmosphere, and sun in the high heavens. In addition, the extreme utility of fire made the ancient Indo-Europeans see the fire as the living symbol of godhead.
In the next article on the series, we shall continue with our journey, exploring the rain-gods of ancient religions.
References
[1]: A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology & Religion by John Dowson[2]: http://www.odinring.de/eng/veda_introduction.htm
[3]]: http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=kavikratu&script=&direction=SE&link=yes
[4]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atar#As_a_divinity
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